Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History
Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History
Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History
Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History : Uttarakhand, nestled in the Himalayan mountains, has a long and rich history. From the ancient kingdoms to the British colonial rule, the region has seen the rise and fall of various dynasties and regimes. Two key aspects that defined the rule of any kingdom or regime were the revenue system and the political structure.
The revenue system determined how taxes were collected, what commodities were taxed, the tax rates, etc. An efficient revenue system filled the state’s coffers while also not overburdening the common people. The political structure determined how power flowed in the kingdom and the relationship between the ruler, feudatories, and common people.
This article will trace the evolution of Uttarakhand’s revenue system and political structure over the centuries. The various revenue systems under the Katyuri, Chand, Panwar, and British rules will be analyzed. The changing dynamics between rulers and feudatories from ancient to colonial times will also be explored.
Revenue System
Ancient Period
In the ancient period, under the Katyuris and Chands, the revenue system was linked to the prevailing economic system of the time. This was largely barter-based with taxes collected in kind through the produce of the land.
The cultivators, known as Khols, were given land for cultivation by the state. In return for the right to cultivate, they had to part with a portion of the produce as tax. There seem to have been no coins or currency in circulation during this period.
Land revenue was the main source of income for the rulers. Taxes were also collected on commodities like salt, wool, and livestock at various trade centers. The overall tax burden on cultivators was modest during this period.
The ancient texts mention various functionaries like the ‘Amil’ (revenue collector), ‘Khazanchi’ (treasurer), and ‘Chaudhari’ (record keeper) suggesting a rudimentary revenue administration system was in place.
Panwar Period
The Panwar rulers continued the ancient revenue system based on sharing of produce between the cultivator and the state. Land was divided into three categories – ‘Sarkar’, ‘Khas’, and ‘Khudkasht’ which attracted different tax rates.
‘Sarkar’ lands were under the direct control of the ruler with the entire produce going to the state. ‘Khas’ lands were allotted to state servants and feudatories as salary or remuneration. Here one-sixth of the produce went to the state. ‘Khudkasht’ were private lands under the control of the cultivator who only paid a land tax of one-tenth of the produce.
The main commodities taxed under the Panwars, apart from agricultural produce, were – wool, salt, manganese, iron, and forest wood. Taxes were collected by various functionaries like the ‘Tehsildar’, ‘Amin’, ‘Qanungo’, ‘Patwari’, and village headmen.
The Panwar rulers had a better system of land records and accounts compared to the ancient period. This enabled more efficient assessment and collection of land revenue.
British Period
The British introduced sweeping changes in Uttarakhand’s traditional land revenue system. They imposed new concepts of property rights, ownership, and taxation. Some key features of the British revenue system were:
Land Settlements – Temporary revenue settlements called ‘bandobast’ were made with villages, not individuals. Land was categorized into four classes – ‘barani’, ‘taalab’, ‘chahi’, and ‘banjar.’ Tax rates varied across these classes.
Land Records – Detailed surveys were conducted to prepare land records showing ownership and cultivation details. Standard land measures like ‘Biswa’ and ‘Bigha’ were introduced.
Cash Crops – Cash crops like sugarcane, indigo, opium, tea, and timber were promoted to increase land revenue. This slowly led to the decline of food crops.
Tax Administration – The bureaucracy was expanded with British officers like Commissioners, Deputy Commissioners, Tehsildars, Naib Tehsildars etc. for revenue collection. Customs duty, transit duties, local cesses etc. were imposed.
Forest Revenue – Scientific forestry systems were implemented. Forest produce like timber, herbs, firewood etc. were taxed. This restricted the access of locals to forests affecting their livelihoods.
The British revenue system was geared towards extracting money rather than welfare of people. The high revenue demand led to discontent and revolts by peasants like the Kol Rebellion (1831) and Santhal Rebellion (1855). While some relief measures were introduced later, the fundamentals of the colonial revenue system remained exploitative.
Feudatory Rule
In ancient times, kingdoms were small and centralized. But from the medieval period, large empires began to emerge across India. It was difficult for rulers to govern vast territories directly. This led to the feudatory system where territories were divided into smaller units and governed indirectly.
Advent of Feudatories
The Katyuri dynasty that ruled Uttarakhand from around 700 CE onwards slowly expanded their kingdom. They appointed feudatories known as ‘Rais’ and ‘Ranas’ to govern frontier regions like Jyotidhara (modern Tehri), Chandpur (Kumaon), and Dungrapur (Doti in Nepal).
The Raikas of Jyotidhara accepted Katyuri suzerainty but retained internal autonomy in their territory. The Chand dynasty which ruled Kumaon from 11th-18th century also started out as Katyuri feudatories. They threw off their allegiance to the Katyuris in 1223 CE and established an independent kingdom.
The various chieftains appointed as feudatories by the Katyuris and Chands were mostly from local martial tribes like the Nagas and Khasas. They were assigned land grants called ‘Jagir’ instead of salary and allowed to retain a portion of the taxes collected. Over time many of them evolved into hereditary ruling dynasties in their own right.
Feudatories under the Panwars and Gorkhas
When Panwar rule was established in Kumaon during the 16th-18th centuries, Harsha Deva allotted large jagirs in the Tarai region to feudatories like the Chauhans and Kshatriyas. They paid an annual tribute to the Kumaon court but otherwise had full internal autonomy.
The Gorkhas who conquered Kumaon in 1790 also used feudatories to govern the hill regions. Feudatories like the Doti Raja, Jumla Raja, and Vijaypur Raja enjoyed autonomy but had to supply troops to the Gorkha army.
In the Tehri region, the Panwar rulers appointed kinsmen as feudatories over towns like Srinagar, Pauri, and Rudraprayag. However, their power was more limited compared to Kumaon as Tehri was the heartland of Panwar power.
Decline of Feudatories
The extensive powers enjoyed by Kumaoni feudatories led to resentment among the Panwar kings. When the Gorkhas overran Kumaon, they reduced the feudatories to zamindars and extinguished their ruling status.
The British initially upheld the rights of Tehri’s feudatories when they occupied a portion of Garhwal in 1803. As colonial rule was established, the British became apprehensive of feudatories wielding unchecked power. The Tehri feudatories were gradually divested of their ruling powers and reduced to mere zamindars.
By the late 19th century, the whole concept of feudatories as autonomous local rulers had disappeared from Uttarakhand. All former chieftains and jagirdars were transformed into landed aristocracy under direct British rule. They derived income from land but had no administrative authority.
Conclusion to Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History
Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History : Uttarakhand’s revenue system and political structure evolved significantly from ancient to colonial times. The traditional land revenue system was disrupted and transformed to maximize colonial interests. Exploitative taxes and forest laws led to great hardship for the region’s peasantry.
The feudatory system which allowed a degree of regional autonomy died out under the centralizing tendency of British rule. Power was now concentrated in the hands of British officers posted from outside the region. This marked the end of Uttarakhand’s indigenous political traditions that had prevailed for over a millennium since the days of the Katyuris.
Glossary
Jagir – Land grant given to feudatories instead of salary
Khudkasht – Privately owned lands under the cultivator’s control
Khas – Lands allotted to state servants and feudatories
Khol – Tenant cultivators during ancient period
Rai – Feudatory designation used for chieftains by Katyuri rulers
Rana – Feudatory designation used for chieftains by Chand rulers
Sarkar – Lands under the direct control of the ruler
Taalab – Lands dependent on rainwater for irrigation
Barani – Lands dependent solely on rain for cultivation
Banjar – Wasteland not fit for cultivation
Chahi – Lands irrigated from natural springs
Bigha – Unit of land measurement, about 1/3rd of an acre
Biswa – 1/20th part of a Bigha
References
- Ancient and Medieval Uttarakhand – Dr. Harikrishna Raturi
- Imperial Gazetteer of India – Provincial Series – United Provinces Vol 2
- District Gazetteers of United Provinces
- Gazetteer of the Naini Tal District (1910)
- Uttarakhand: Past, Present and Future – Dr K.S. Valdiya
- The History of British India – James Mill
FAQs to Revenue System and Feudatory Rule in Uttarakhand History:
What were some key ancient dynasties of Uttarakhand? The Katyuri dynasty ruled from around 700 CE onwards followed by the Chands who established power in 11th century. The Panwars ruled Garhwal from mid-16th to early 19th century.
How was the revenue system in ancient Uttarakhand?
The revenue system was linked to the barter economy. Taxes were collected in kind from peasant cultivators known as Khols who shared the produce with the state.
When did the British annex Uttarakhand? The British gradually annexed different parts of Garhwal and Kumaon between 1801 to 1816. The major territory came under British control after the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-16.
How was administration structured during the colonial rule? The British centralized all authority. Local feudatories and chieftains were divested of power. All decisions were now taken by British officers posted from outside the region.
What were the main impacts of British land revenue policy? High revenue demand, restrictive forest laws, and individual land rights – led to great hardships for Uttarakhand peasantry. Frequent revolts occurred against exploitative colonial agrarian policies.
