Agriculturalization, Military System, Trade, Taxation System, Social Classes in Uttarakhand

Agriculturalization, Military System, Trade, Taxation System, Social Classes in Uttarakhand : Uttarakhand, nestled in the Himalayas, has a rich history and culture. Its medieval period saw the rise and fall of various dynasties and kingdoms. This article analyzes the developments in agriculture, military, trade, taxation and social structure in medieval Uttarakhand spanning roughly from the 4th century CE to the 18th century CE.

Agriculturalization in Medieval Uttarakhand

Expansion of Cultivable Lands

The medieval dynasties invested in expanding cultivable lands to increase agricultural production and state revenue.
Forest lands were cleared and terraced for farming. Irrigation systems like canals and tanks were developed.
The Katyuri kings grants mention lands reclaimed from forests. The Chand kings also invested heavily in agricultural expansion projects.

Crops Cultivated

The major crops cultivated were:

Paddy: The staple crop grown in the plains and valleys. The state levied heavy paddy taxes.
Wheat: Grown in winter, especially in Garhwal. Wheat tax was also collected by the state.
Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi were grown in dry uplands. Coarse grains for common people.
Oil Seeds: Til, mustard etc. were grown as cash crops. Oil was important for lighting and cooking.
Cotton: Grown in lower hills and plains for textiles production.
Fruits and Vegetables: Subtropical varieties were grown in Kumaon hills. Temperate varieties grown in higher reaches.

Agricultural Technology

Iron ploughshares were used in plains and valleys. Wooden ploughs still used in upland slopes.
Irrigation technologies improved with canals, tanks, wells etc.
Use of manure and crop rotation started.

So, extensive agriculturalization sustained the economy and population growth in medieval Uttarakhand.

Military System in Medieval Uttarakhand

Forts and Fortifications

Hill forts and fortified outposts formed the backbone of military defence.
Forts erected at strategic locations on trade routes, hill passes, confluences etc.
Massive hilltop forts with high walls, bastions and towers. Smaller outpost forts and watchtowers.
Forts well-provisioned to withstand long sieges. Water harvesting systems developed.

Weaponry

The main weapons used were:

Swords: The most common weapon. Both straight and curved blades used.
Spears: Long spears and javelins used by infantry and cavalry.
Bows: Short recurve bows used with poisoned arrows. Composite bows introduced later.
Axes: Battle axes and poleaxes used to smash armor and shields.
Armour and Shields: Metal helmets, chainmail armour and metal shields used.

Army

The medieval armies consisted of:

Infantry: Formed the bulk of the army. Peasant levies provided foot soldiers.
Cavalry: Formed of aristocratic warriors on horseback. Heavily armored cavalry with lances and bows.
Archers: Vital for siege warfare. Used composite bows and crossbows.
Elephant Corps: Formed the elite strike force. Heavily protected war elephants deployed as tanks.

Military Strategy

Fort centric defensive strategy focused on controlling mountain passes and trade routes.
Offensive strategy reliant on speed, surprise attacks and scorched earth tactics.
Alliance building with plains kingdoms for cavalry support.

So medieval Uttarakhand developed an effective mountain warfare military system based on fortifications, cavalry and archers.

Trade in Medieval Uttarakhand

Internal Trade

Barter system prevalent in hills. Goods exchanged without money.
Local markets held at pilgrimage centres, temples and forts.
Porter trade essential for transportation across hills using mules and ponies.
Forest produce like honey, herbs, wild fruits etc. traded locally.

External Trade

The major trade routes:

North-South routes: Connecting Tibet and Plains via passes. Wool, salt, herbs traded.
East-West routes: Connecting western plains and Bengal via Nepal. Textiles, spices, jewellery traded.

The main goods traded externally were:

Wool: Tibetan wool traded for textile production in plains.
Salt: Himalayan rock salt from Tibet traded to plains.
Horses: Bred in hills and traded to plains.
Textiles: Cotton, silk and woolen textiles produced in hills were traded widely.
Medicinal Herbs: Abundant Himalayan herbs traded to plains.
Metalware and Minerals: Copperware, ironware and semi-precious stones traded.
Spices and Condiments: Large cardamom, ginger, turmeric etc. traded.

So, Uttarakhand was an important trade hub due to its strategic location on various trans-Himalayan trade routes.

Taxation System in Medieval Uttarakhand

Land Tax

Tax levied as share of produce, not on land area.
Generally 1/6th share taken as tax on irrigated lands.
1/4th to 1/3rd share taken as tax on unirrigated lands.

Commercial Taxes

Tax checkpoints set up at trade route crossings.
Tax levied on goods transported through the kingdom.
1/20th of value taken as commercial tax.

Forest Produce Tax

Bhur, charcoal and timber taxed at 1/6th value.
Tax levied on grazing cattle in forest pastures.
Beeswax, honey and herbs also taxed.

Other Taxes

House tax levied on houses.
Professionals like oilmen, weavers, potters, smiths etc. taxed for their trade.

So, the taxation system was well-organized to raise revenue for the state treasury through taxes on agriculture, trade, forests, cattle rearing and professions.

Upper Classes

Royalty and Nobility: Kings, nobles and feudal chiefs formed the highest class. Largest land grants. Exempted from taxes.

Feudal Gentry: Lower ranking royalty. Held hereditary administrative and military positions. Received land grants and tax concessions.

Temple Priests: Brahmin temple priests formed the religious elite. Received land grants and offerings from devotees.

Middle Classes

Merchants and Traders: Engaged long-distance trade between hills, Tibet and plains. Dominated local trade and money lending.

Military Service Class: Warriors, soldiers and military officers held land grants in lieu of military service.

Artisans and Craftsmen: Metalworkers, stonemasons, carpenters, weavers etc. Produced goods for local use and trade.

Lower Classes

Cultivators: Tenant farmers and small landholders engaged in agriculture and cattle rearing. Paid taxes on produce.

Labouring Class: Landless farm labourers, construction workers, porters, forest produce collectors etc. Lived in poverty.

Tribal Communities: Lived in remote hills practicing shifting agriculture. Outside mainstream society.

So, medieval Uttarakhand society was divided into upper nobility, middle service classes and lower working classes similar to other medieval kingdoms.

In conclusion, medieval Uttarakhand witnessed dynamic developments in agricultural expansion, fortification based military systems, extensive internal trade networks and external trans-Himalayan trade spanning Tibet, Nepal and the Indian plains. The taxation system efficiently raised revenue for the state administration and military. Society was structured into upper nobility and priests, middle military and merchant classes, and lower working classes very much in alignment with other medieval societies. These developments peaked under the powerful Katyuri, Chand and Panwar dynasties ruling over Kumaon and Garhwal through the medieval period.

FAQs:

What are some key historical kingdoms of Uttarakhand?

The Katyuri, Chand and Panwar dynasties ruled major parts of Uttarakhand during the medieval period.

What religions shaped Uttarakhand’s culture?

Uttarakhand’s culture has been predominantly shaped by Hinduism given its location in the Himalayas. It has been an important Hindu pilgrimage site.

What architectural heritage is seen in Uttarakhand?

Uttarakhand has several hill forts, temples, shrines, palaces and other structures dating back to its medieval kingdoms.

What are some cultural traditions of Uttarakhand?

Folk music and dance like Chholiya, Jhumeila, music of the Bajgis, the language Kumaoni and traditional foods are integral parts of Uttarakhand’s culture.

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